This article was written by Mark Laws at Future Fit Training

Music preference whilst training is a very personal choice and can often cause debates in the gym when the tracks playing are not to everybody’s liking. The obvious choice for most people is to wear headphones and listen to their own carefully compiled playlist. 

In fact, a 2014 survey aiming to establish the influence of music and headphones on daily living, found that two out of three people who owned headphones would be less active without music to motivate them, whilst 40% admitted that they would abandon their workout if they didn’t have their headphones (REPUBLIC, 2014).

But why is it so important? Do people listen to music purely out of habit, or as an avoidance of social interaction? And why shouldn’t they just put up with whatever music is already playing in the gym? 

Firstly, music has been shown to deliver a complete brain workout by activating numerous networks, particularly the regions of the brain that reside in the motor system (Gordon, Cobb and Balasubramaniam, 2018). It also affects emotion, associate/automatic movements, and memory, with its rhythmic patterns proven to help with movement accomplishment and error correction (Levitin and Tirovolas, 2009). When these are strategically chosen during training, research has established that it can lead to increased adherence, motivation, endurance capacity, alertness, coordination, and mood regulation.  It has also been proven to reduce pain, blood pressure, fatigue, and anxiety.

Photo by Anete Lusina

It is unlikely that many of us would consider such benefits, instead just taking for granted the fact that we enjoy music and perhaps find it motivational during exercise, switching off to the undercurrent that is having such a profound influence on our performance. But how are these effects possible?

The vying sensory overload of a good song during exercise has been described as a dissociative cognitive strategy (De Nora, 2000). When fatigue sets in, the body recognises the increased heart rate, rising lactate levels, sweat production, and pain, and modulates itself accordingly. 

Music serves to compete with this feedback, motivating us to carry on. It distracts us, positively influencing behaviour and drawing us away from fatigue, pain, or other proprioceptive sensations (Fritz et al., 2013).

Furthermore, better results can be expected when people listen to their own music choices, with different beats and types eliciting different mental and physiological responses, from changes in heart and respiration rates to muscle tension (Altenmüller and Schlaug, 2013).

This is particularly true when the music choice suits the style or pace of exercise being undertaken, with synchronised music to movement proven to enhance both psychological and physical performance (Karageorghis and Priest, 2012). This could be partly because music creates a “rhythm response” (Jabr, 2020), and when paired with rhythmic activities, may help the body to use energy more efficiently, as we naturally coordinate our bodies with the music, meaning fewer adjustments might be required throughout the exercise. 

Ideal tempos would be those that can match the person’s ability to keep pace, whilst challenging their desire to do so.

This was shown in a study that aimed to compare oxygen consumption and physiological effects during exercise, performed synchronously and asynchronously with music. The results demonstrated that exercise is more efficient when performed synchronously with music, with those who cycled to the beat requiring 7% less oxygen to do the same relative workload as those who did not (Bacon et al, 2012).

In addition, multiple studies can attest to the fact that a specific tempo (measured in beats per minute) can likely affect the performance of different forms of training. For example; treadmill exercise has shown a preferred range of 123-131 beats per minute (bpm) for walking or jogging, 140-145 bpm for higher effort levels (both aiming at approximately 40-70% HRRmax), or 150-180 bpm for increasing cadence under all-out effort. However, in terms of motivation, a plateau or “ceiling effect” above 80% HRRmax (around 150bpm plus) has been noted, even though many running tracks tend to be around 160bpm. So, I would suggest that to some extent it comes down to individual preference. Interestingly, cycling also showed an optimal range of 125-140 beats per minute (Karageorghis & Jones, 2014, Karageorghis et al., 2011).

Basically, a song with a strong beat is usually far more motivational and energy-promoting, so it’s no wonder that running or cycling to a beat helps to “keep you going” whilst giving you something to contend with. You can become lost in the music, driving you to exercise harder for longer, thus enhancing overall performance.

The subject and composition are also a factor, causing triggers that prompt people to obtain inspiration from the lyrics or the meaning. For example, songs from Rocky cause associations that tend to motivate well. Factors such as this, paired with a “catchy” or upbeat melody can encourage people to synchronise their effort levels in line with the beat and the music itself (Markman, 2020).

Photo by Andrea Piacquadio

Research has demonstrated this on multiple occasions, particularly when participants engage with the music (Fritz et al., 2013), meaning motivation, energy, and consequently mood are increased further. Because “mood” is such a massive factor, alongside energy availability, it can make or break a training session and can be altered by the music we choose. It can stimulate and helpfully distract from those stressful external and internal factors, making us ready to exercise. Why? Because it boosts Endorphins, Dopamine, and Serotonin, which all function differently, yet work closely together to stimulate the pleasure-reward system, and feel-good factor.

This may also be extremely beneficial for those new to exercise or less confident in a gym setting, as music can help control the activity in the parts of the brain known to be involved in the regulation of emotional processes (as previously mentioned). This is done via Endorphins, affecting stress-related emotional states (Pittman & Kridli, 2011), both psychological and physiological. When psychological and muscular stress is induced, including during exercise, Opioids (with their pain-relieving effects) are released(Howlett et al., 1984). Therefore, when Endorphins attach to the opiate receptors in the brain, it naturally serves to relieve pain, helping us to push past aches and fatigue to tolerate a “harder” workout. By listening to, and interacting with music during training, you can thereby increase Opioid release and the consequential analgesia qualities.

This is then followed by a release of Dopamine, motivating perseverance towards the aforementioned pleasure-reward.

The focus becomes greater and we crave music’s psychological support because of the dopaminergic neurons it activates (Keitz et al., 2003). If we compare it to drugs or substances or even smoking, these all-trigger dopaminergic reactions, so it is no surprise that the 2014 study mentioned earlier found a reliance on music. 

Listeners can even increase their Dopamine levels by changing their playlist to random or shuffle, as the element of surprise causes it to increase even more (Altenmüller and Schlaug, 2013). Moreover, Serotonin is also responsible for mood, emotion, and focus; as we know, exercise itself also releases these hormones. Remarkably, a study by Altenmüller and Schlaug; 2012, found that when people were given what they perceived to be “pleasing” music to listen to, they exhibited higher levels of the chemical, yet another reason why making your own gym playlist is important!

And let’s not forget that humans are generally social beings. This can be used to our advantage even with music, as increases are also influenced by the fact that exercise can be a social bonding experience, between trainer and client, class participants, friends, or like-minded people. Activities that facilitate this, particularly synchronised exercise also enable the triggering of hormones such as Endorphin’s (Sullivan et al., 2014) and Oxytocin, which help us to trust and bond with others (Olff et al., 2013).

Pair this with the Endorphin release that music causes, and we can see how effective exercising with this added stimulation is.  

We know that exercise is vital for so many reasons, from mental and physical health, to performance, or even just as an “escape, or release from life’s daily stresses. Numerous neuroscientific studies concur that music has also been shown to lower stress, thus decreasing blood pressure, heart rate, and cortisol (De Witte et al., 2019; Koelsch et al., 2016; Leardi et al., 2007; Linnemann, et al, 2015; Nilsson, 2009).

Photo by Karolina Grabowska

For example, a study by Thoma et al., 2013 found that listening to music prior to a stressful situation/activity affected the autonomic nervous system, aiding faster recovery, and regulation of the cardiovascular system, endocrine and psychological responses. This was also the finding in a study looking at the effects of music and different tempos on post-exercise recovery time following moderate exercise. Sixty volunteers (male and female) performed the Harvard’s step test for three days with different rest environments given each day. The first day included silent rest, the second day’s rest had them listen to slow music, and the third day changed to faster-paced music. 

The second day’s recovery using slow music documented that blood pressure and pulse rate recovery times were notably faster. As recovery is so important in terms of performance gains and injury prevention, we can see that music can also contribute to its improvement (Bhavsar et al., 2014).

The reduction in stress, in particular, the lowering of cortisol is great news for those whose goals include fat loss and hypertrophy. The lowered blood pressure and heart rate are also of significant importance in terms of exertion and performance capabilities, as stress can vastly delay recovery, cause fluid retention, and affect fat distribution. 

Music is a useful intervention to not only improve activity levels but also to boost psychological motivation and participation. It helps to reduce how much a person feels and thinks they are exerting themselves. When we exercise the body informs the brain of the amount of effort being exerted, the physical taxation, and consequential fatigue. The brain then responds by modulating the physical effort taking place, influencing behavioural responses. As explained previously, the influence music has on brain networks and hormones cause the effects of fatigue and pain to diminish, whether that is perceived or actual, whilst diverting attention. 

Therefore, in terms of exertion, listening to music can make you feel like you are exerting yourself less, at the same level of intensity that would perhaps feel more strenuous without musical accompaniment.

A study by Lee et al., 2016 found that fast-tempo music influenced peak heart rate (184±12 vs. 177±17 bpm -1, P<0.01), running speed (10.8±1.7 vs. 9.9±1.4 km per hour-1, P<0.001), without a difference in their rate of perceived exertion (FM, 16.8±1.8 vs. SM 15.7±1.9, P=0.10), even though the workout intensity had increased. 

Beneficially, music with a slower tempo aided the faster recovery of resting heart rate, and blood lactate (2.8±0.4 vs. 4.7±0.8 mmol per L-1, P<0.05). However, its results do lessen when intensity shifts from low to medium, to high. This may be explained by Hutchinson and Tenenbaum., 2007 who suggested that music’s effect on exertion and intensity is attributable to a change in focus, from dissociative to associative when exercise intensifies, causing people to acknowledge bodily sensations more readily even though there is the distractor of music still in place. Regardless, we cannot deny the positive outcomes that music brings to enhance performance and well-being.

In conclusion, the positive effects elicited by music require its usage in fitness classes, gyms, and day-to-day activities, by athletes and non-athletes alike. 

Photo by Andrea Piacquadio

The rate of perceived exertion lessens (especially during low-intensity exercise), adherence and participation increase, and the musical parameters provide a motivating and ergogenic influence.

The massive bonus is certainly the reduction in pain and fatigue-related symptoms, alongside its improvement in motor system efficacy, hormonal release, and emotional regulation, ultimately leading to higher levels of exercise productivity overall. 

Choosing a good playlist that suits the activity and personal preference is paramount and shouldn’t be undermined, after all, any additional assistance that helps us lift more proficiently, train harder, or exercise for longer should be given the attention and careful planning it deserves. 

Find out more about how music affects exercise and sports in our book Applying Music in Exercise and Sport by Costas I. Karageirghis.

References

Altenmüller, E. and Schlaug, G., 2012. Music, Brain, and Health: Exploring Biological Foundations of Music’s Health Effects. Music, Health, and Wellbeing, pp.13-24.

Altenmüller, E. and Schlaug, G., 2013. Neurologic music therapy: The beneficial effects of music making on neurorehabilitation. Acoustical Science and Technology, 34(1), pp.5-12. 

Bacon, C. J., Myers, T. R., & Karageorghis, C. I. (2012). Effect of music-movement synchrony on exercise oxygen consumption. The Journal of sports medicine and physical fitness, 52(4), 359–365.

Bhavsar, D.S., S. Abhange, D.R. and Afroz, D.S. (2014) “Effect of different musical tempo on post-exercise recovery in young adults,” IOSR Journal of Dental and Medical Sciences, 13(5), pp. 60–64. Available at: https://doi.org/10.9790/0853-13516064.

Chow, E. and Etnier, J., 2017. Effects of music and video on perceived exertion during high-intensity exercise. Journal of Sport and Health Science, 6(1), pp.81-88.

DeNora, T., 2000. Music in everyday life. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

De Witte, M. et al. (2019) “Effects of music interventions on stress-related outcomes: A systematic review and two meta-analyses,” Health Psychology Review, 14(2), pp. 294–324. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/17437199.2019.1627897.

Fritz, T.H. et al. (2013) “Musical agency reduces perceived exertion during strenuous physical performance,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(44), pp. 17784–17789. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1217252110.

Gordon, C., Cobb, P. and Balasubramaniam, R., 2018. Recruitment of the motor system during music listening: An ALE meta-analysis of fMRI data. PLOS ONE, 13(11), p.e0207213.

Hutchinson, J. and Tenenbaum, G., 2007. Attention focus during physical effort: The mediating role of task intensity. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 8(2), pp.233-245.

Howlett, T.A. et al. (1984) “Release of beta endorphin and met-enkephalin during exercise in normal women: Response to training.,” BMJ, 288(6435), pp. 1950–1952. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.288.6435.1950.

Jabr, F. (2020) “Let’s Get Physical: The Psychology of Effective Workout Music,” Scientific American, 20 March.

Karageorghis, C.I. et al. (2011) “Revisiting the relationship between exercise heart rate and music tempo preference,” Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 82(2), pp. 274–284. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2011.10599755.

Karageorghis, C. and Priest, D., 2012. Music in the exercise domain: a review and synthesis (Part II). International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 5(1), pp.67-84.

Karageorghis, C.I. and Jones, L. (2014) “On the stability and relevance of the exercise heart rate–music-tempo preference relationship,” Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 15(3), pp. 299–310. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2013.08.004.

Keitz, M., Martin-Soelch, C. and Leenders, K., 2003. Reward Processing in the Brain: A Prerequisite for Movement Preparation?. Neural Plasticity, 10(1-2), pp.121-128.

Koelsch, S. et al. (2016) “The impact of acute stress on hormones and cytokines and how their recovery is affected by music-evoked positive mood,” Scientific Reports, 6(1). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/srep23008.

Lee, S., & Kimmerly, D. S. (2016). Influence of music on maximal self-paced running performance and passive post-exercise recovery rate. The Journal of sports medicine and physical fitness, 56(1-2), 39–48.

Levitin, D. and Tirovolas, A., 2009. Current Advances in the Cognitive Neuroscience of Music. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1156(1), pp.211-231.

Leardi, S. et al. (2007) “Randomized clinical trial examining the effect of music therapy in stress response to day surgery,” British Journal of Surgery, 94(8), pp. 943–947. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1002/bjs.5914.&nbsp;

Linnemann, A. et al. (2015) “Music listening as a means of stress reduction in daily life,” Psychoneuroendocrinology, 60, pp. 82–90. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.06.008.&nbsp;

Nilsson, U. (2009) “The effect of music intervention in stress response to cardiac surgery in a randomized clinical trial,” Heart &amp; Lung, 38(3), pp. 201–207. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrtlng.2008.07.008.

Markman, A., 2020. The Benefits of Listening to Music When You Exercise. Psychology Today, [online] Available at: <https://www.psychologytoday.com/gb/blog/ulterior-motives/202006/the-benefits-listening-music-when-you-exercise&gt; [Accessed 9 October 2022].

North, A.C. and Hargreaves, D.J. (2008) “Music, business, and health,” The Social and Applied Psychology of Music, pp. 237–312. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198567424.003.0005.

Olff, M., Frijling, J., Kubzansky, L., Bradley, B., Ellenbogen, M., Cardoso, C., Bartz, J., Yee, J. and van Zuiden, M., 2013. The role of oxytocin in social bonding, stress regulation and mental health: An update on the moderating effects of context and interindividual differences. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 38(9), pp.1883-1894.

Patania, V., Padulo, J., Iuliano, E., Ardigò, L., Čular, D., Miletić, A. and De Giorgio, A., 2020. The Psychophysiological Effects of Different Tempo Music on Endurance Versus High-Intensity Performances. Frontiers in Psychology, 11.

Pittman, S., & Kridli, S. (2011). Music intervention and preoperative anxiety: an integrative review. International nursing review, 58(2), 157–163. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1466-7657.2011.00888.x

REPUBLIC, S., 2014. Sound Over Pounds: Survey Finds Two Out Of Three People Cut Their Workout Short Or Ditch It Completely Without Headphones. [online] Prnewswire.com. Available at: <https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/sound-over-pounds-survey-finds-two-out-of-three-people-cut-their-workout-short-or-ditch-it-completely-without-headphones-253570611.html&gt; [Accessed 28 September 2022].

R., M.D.R.A., Kreutz, G. and Mitchell, L. (2013) in Music, health, and Wellbeing. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 457–476.

Sachs, M., Habibi, A., Damasio, A. and Kaplan, J., 2020. Dynamic intersubject neural synchronization reflects affective responses to sad music. NeuroImage, 218, p.116512.

Stefano, G. B., Zhu, W., Cadet, P., Salamon, E., & Mantione, K. J. (2004). Music alters constitutively expressed opiate and cytokine processes in listeners. Medical science monitor : international medical journal of experimental and clinical research, 10(6), MS18–MS27.

Sullivan, P.J., Rickers, K. and Gammage, K.L. (2014) “The effect of different phases of synchrony on pain threshold.,” Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 18(2), pp. 122–128. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1037/gdn0000001.

Tarr, B., Launay, J. and Dunbar, R., 2014. Music and social bonding: “self-other” merging and neurohormonal mechanisms. Frontiers in Psychology, 5.

Terry, P.C., Karageorghis, C.I., Curran, M.L., Martin, O.V., & Parsons-Smith, R.L. (2020). Effects of music in exercise and sport: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 146(2), 91-117.

Thoma, M.V. et al. (2013) “The effect of music on the Human Stress Response,” PLoS ONE, 8(8). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0070156.

Header photo by Ketut Subiyanto